Transfer Pricing in manufacturing industry
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Transfer Pricing is important factor across various industries and economic sectors, particularly for those involved in cross-border transactions and intercompany dealings. One notable sector where Transfer Pricing is especially significant is the manufacturing industry. Let’s explore deeper this specific industry, try to understand its complexities and the role of Transfer Pricing.
Unique Transfer Pricing aspects in manufacturing industry
The manufacturing industry has unique characteristics that differentiate it from other industries in the context of Transfer Pricing. One major difference is the complexity of the supply chain. Manufacturing often involves several stages of production, from raw materials to intermediate goods to finished products, requiring detailed analysis of intercompany transactions at each stage. Additionally, manufacturers often operate global supply chains, with different parts of the production process taking place in various countries. This necessitates careful Transfer Pricing planning to manage cross-border transactions and ensure compliance with diverse regulations.
For a multinational enterprise (MNE) involved in manufacturing and selling products, having a thoroughly planned value chain is crucial for achieving its objectives. By identifying business activities that generate value and provide a competitive edge, the MNE can streamline its operations effectively. Establishing separate entities to handle each function within the value chain allows the company to optimize these activities, thereby maximizing output and minimizing organizational costs. This approach, implemented decades ago, has consistently demonstrated its success in enhancing business efficiency and profitability.
Capital-intensive operations are another distinguishing feature of the manufacturing industry. Manufacturing businesses typically have significant investments in physical assets such as machinery, equipment, and facilities. The valuation and allocation of costs related to these assets are critical in Transfer Pricing. The costs associated with depreciation and maintenance of manufacturing assets must be accurately allocated and factored into Transfer Pricing calculations.
Manufacturers must manage and allocate risks related to inventory, such as obsolescence, carrying costs, and fluctuations in market demand. Transfer Pricing policies need to reflect how these risks are shared among related entities. Proper valuation of inventory transfers between entities is essential to ensure compliance with Transfer Pricing regulations.
What about cost allocation? Manufacturing involves both direct costs (raw materials, labour) and indirect costs (overheads, administrative expenses). Accurate allocation of these costs to different entities within the group is important. Manufacturers may also engage in cost-sharing arrangements for the joint development of products or technology, which must be structured and documented to meet arm’s length standards.
Arm‘s lengths principle in manufacturing
To determine the ideal Transfer Price or appropriate profit level, it is essential to accurately characterize the entity. For Transfer Pricing purposes, a manufacturing company can be categorized as a toll manufacturer, contract manufacturer, licensed manufacturer, or entrepreneur/full-fledged manufacturer.
A toll manufacturer processes raw materials supplied by the principal into finished or semi-finished products according to the principal’s specifications, formula, and quantities. This type of manufacturer performs very limited functions, does not own manufacturing intangibles, and bears minimal risks.
A contract manufacturer produces goods for a principal based on pre-agreed quantities and schedules, with the principal guaranteeing the purchase of the agreed quantity. This entity typically performs moderate functions, has limited manufacturing intangibles, and assumes limited risks.
A licensed manufacturer is similar to an entrepreneur/full-fledged manufacturer, but it does not own the manufacturing intangibles used in production and does not engage in any research and development (R&D) activities.
An entrepreneur/full-fledged manufacturer has a high functional profile, undertaking manufacturing for its own sales and performing significant functions across the value chain, such as R&D, sales, production, after-sales services, logistics, and marketing. This entity bears substantial risks, including product liability, warranty, capacity utilization, market fluctuations, and price changes, and it receives all residual profits or losses from the value chain.
Conducting a functional analysis is crucial to accurately identify the characteristics of the entity. Understanding these characteristics helps predict the level of risks borne by the entity and the corresponding profit level, ensuring that profits are proportional to the risks assumed.
Transfer Pricing methods
If talking about Transfer Pricing methods, the Cost Plus Method is often used in manufacturing due to the ease of applying a markup to the costs incurred in production. CPM compares the gross profit mark-up on the costs incurred by a manufacturer with the gross profits achieved by the same manufacturer in internal transactions (internal CPM) or by comparable independent manufacturers in similar uncontrolled transactions (external CPM). When applying the CPM, companies must consider that there may be significant differences in how various manufacturing companies classify and account for items of expenses as either the cost of goods manufactured or operating expenses. These conflicts should be accounted for to ensure accurate comparisons.
Comparative Uncontrolled Price (CUP) method compares the price that a manufacturer charges its related party (controlled transaction) with the price charged to an unrelated party (uncontrolled). If a manufacturer sells to both related and unrelated parties, offering comparable products and terms, the CUP method may be used.
CUP method needs a high level of similarity between the manufactured product and the terms and conditions of transactions. Therefore, a thorough comparability analysis is essential, comparing related and independent transactions. If significant differences such as product quality, credit terms, or transportation terms exist and influence the price, accurate adjustments must be applied to remove these disparities.
The Transactional Net Margin Method (TNMM) operates on the economic principle that companies within the same industry tend to generate comparable returns over time. Unlike other Transfer Pricing methods, TNMM permits a degree of flexibility to accommodate minor variations in functions and products between the taxpayer and comparable manufacturing firms. Therefore, it enables the examination of total profits across companies even when slight differences exist in products and functions.
In conclusion, Transfer Pricing in the manufacturing industry is a multifaceted and critical aspect of MNE’s operations. The complexities of manufacturing operations, including intricate supply chains, significant capital investments, and diverse product lines, present unique challenges in determining appropriate transfer prices. Proper characterization of manufacturing entities, whether as toll manufacturers, contract manufacturers, licensed manufacturers, or entrepreneur/full-fledged manufacturers, is essential for accurate Transfer Pricing analysis.
Different Transfer Pricing methods offer various approaches to pricing intercompany transactions. Each method has its advantages and considerations, and selecting the most suitable method requires careful assessment of the specific circumstances and available data.
Conducting a comprehensive functional analysis is crucial for identifying the functions, assets, and risks assumed by each entity in the manufacturing value chain. This analysis helps determine the appropriate level of profit and ensures that profits are allocated by the economic contributions of each entity.
Effective Transfer Pricing requires a deep understanding of industry dynamics, regulatory requirements, and international tax principles. By implementing complex Transfer Pricing policies and methodologies, manufacturing companies can optimize their tax position, reduce risks of double taxation, and enhance overall operational efficiency and competitiveness in the global market.
Sources:
https://www.elibrary.imf.org/display/book/9781475539660/ch003.xml
https://academic.oup.com/cesifo/article/66/2/134/5480384?login=false